A cognitive model of menopausal hot flushes and night sweats

Hot flushes and night sweats (HF/NS) are commonly experienced by mid-aged women during the menopause transition. They affect approximately 70% of women but are regarded as problematic for 15–20% largely due to physical discomfort, distress, social embarrassment, and sleep disturbance. There is a need for effective and acceptable nonmedical treatments for menopausal symptoms due to the declining use of hormone therapy (HT) following publication of the Womenʹs Health Initiative and other prospective studies which associated HT use with increased risk of stroke and breast cancer. HF/NS are an example of a physiological process embedded within, and moderated by, psychological processes, as evidenced by discrepancies between subjective experiences and physiologically measured symptoms. We describe a cognitive model of menopausal hot flushes that can explain symptom perception, cognitive appraisal, and behavioral reactions to symptoms. Theoretically, the model draws on symptom perception theory, self-regulation theory, and cognitive behavioral theories. The model can be used to identify the variables to target in psychological interventions for HF/NS and to aid understanding of possible mediating factors. As part of Phase II intervention development, we describe a cognitive behavioral treatment which links the bio-psycho-social processes specified in the model to components of the intervention.