Information from folds: A review

Folds are spectacular geological structures that are seen in layered rock on many different scales. To mark 30 years of the Journal of Structural Geology, we review the information that can be gained from studies of folds in theory, experiment and nature. We first review theoretical considerations and modeling, from classical approaches to current developments. The subject is dominated by single-layer fold theory, with the assumption of perfect layer-parallel shortening, but we also review multilayer fold theory and modeling, and folding of layers that are oblique to principal stresses and strains. This work demonstrates that viscosity ratio, degree of non-linearity of the flow law, anisotropy, and the thickness and spacing distribution of layers of different competence are all important in determining the nature and strength of the folding instability. Theory and modeling provide the basis for obtaining rheological information from natural folds, through analysis of wavelength/thickness ratios of single layer folds, and fold shapes. They also provide a basis for estimating the bulk strain from folded layers. Information about folding mechanisms can be obtained by analysis of cleavage and fabric patterns in folded rocks, and the history of deformation can be revealed by understanding how asymmetry can develop in folds, by how folds develop in shear zones, and how folds develop in more complex three-dimensional deformations.