Global trading versus linking: Architectures for international emissions trading

International emissions trading is widely seen as an indispensable policy pillar of climate change mitigation [Stern, N., 2007. The Economics of Climate Change. The Stern Review. Cambridge University Press, New York]. This article analyzes five different types of trading architectures, classified into two top–down (UNFCCC driven) and three bottom–up (driven by individual countries or regions) approaches. The two types of approaches are characterized by a trade-off between environmental effectiveness and political feasibility, respectively, whereas their relative cost-effectiveness depends on implementation details. Bottom–up architectures constitute imperfect substitutes for top–down architectures in terms of environmental effectiveness, and thus remain mere fallback options. However, especially the ‘formal linking’ architecture can act as complement in terms of cost-effectiveness.