Critical evaluation of measures to mitigate phosphorus losses from agricultural land to surface waters in Sweden

The aim of this paper is to collate information on potential measures to reduce phosphorus (P) losses, with particular reference to Sweden. In Sweden, three dominant types of soils or soil profiles are at risk of suffering from high P losses through different pathways: clay soils with a naturally poor structure, usually situated on the large central plains, are prone to lose P through drain tiles; silty soils, usually situated on hilly terrain, are prone to erosion; and sandy soils with a low P sorption capacity in both topsoil and subsoil and that have had heavy applications of fertilisers, are prone to high leaching losses. Fields with such soils and landscape position with connectivity to surface waters may lose more than 0.5 kg P ha year 1 and often more than 1 kg P ha year 1. Losses of soluble reactive P (SRP) are commonly 30–50% of the total P losses. Improved soil tillage together with other measures aimed at improving soil structure are suggested to have the best potential to reduce losses, with short-term and long-term effects, for the clayey and silty soil profiles. For the silty soils, keeping the surface densely vegetated in winter and liming backfill of the drainage systems are suggested to be important ways to reduce the losses of particulate P (PartP). For sandy soils prone to P leaching, appropriate application of fertiliser and improved contact between fertiliser and the soil may be one of the few effective ways to reduce SRP losses.