Probing the clear atmosphere with high power, high resolution radars

Observations of radar echoes from the clear atmosphere are presented and the scattering mechanisms responsible for the two basic types of clear-air echoes are discussed. The commonly observed dot echo originates from a point in space and usually shows little variation in echo intensity over periods of about 0.1 second. The results of the most recent investigations of these clear-air dot targets are consistent with the conclusion that most, if not all, of the dot echoes are caused by insects or birds. The second type of clear-air radar echo appears diffuse in space, and signal intensities vary considerably over periods of less than 0.1 second. The echoes often occur in thin horizontal layers or as boundaries of convective activity; these are characterized by sharp gradients of refractive index. The reflectivity-wavelength dependence of these echoes is consistent with the theory of scattering by fluctuations in refractive index, and the signal intensities can be accounted for by the spectral characteristics of refractive-index variations observed directly. Some features of clear-air atmospheric structures as observed with radar are presented. These structures include thin stable inversions, convective thermals, Bénard convection cells, breaking gravity waves, and high tropospheric layers which are sufficiently turbulent to affect aircraft.