Global morphology of ionospheric scintillations

Starting with post World War II studies of fading of radio star sources and continuing with fading of satellite signals of Sputnik, vast quantities of data have built up on the effect of ionospheric irregularities on signals from beyond the F layer. The review attempts to organize the available amplitude and phase scintillation data into equatorial, middle-, and high-latitude morphologies. The effect of magnetic activity, solar sunspot cycle, and time of day is shown for each of these three latitudinal sectors. The effect of the very high levels of solar flux during the past sunspot maximum of 1979-1981 is stressed. During these years unusually high levels of scintillation were noted near the peak of the Appleton equatorial anomaly (∼ ±15° away from the magnetic equator) as well as over polar latitudes. New data on phase fluctuations are summarized for the auroral zone with its sheet-like irregularity structure. One model is now available which will yield amplitude and phase predictions for varying sites and solar conditions. Other models, more limited in their output and use, are also available. The models are outlined with their limitations and data bases noted. New advances in morphology and in understanding the physics of irregularity development in the equatorial and auroral regions have taken place. Questions and unknowns in morphology and in the physics of irregularity development remain. These include the origin of the seeding sources of equatorial irregularities, the physics of development of auroral irregularity patches, and the morphology of F-layer irregularities at middle latitudes.