A reply to Etzkowitz’ comments to Leydesdorff and Martin (2010): technology transfer and the end of the Bayh–Dole effect

Three periods can be distinguished in university patenting at the U.S. Patent and Trade Office (USPTO) since the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980: (1) a first period of exponential increase in university patenting till 1995 (filing date) or 1999 (issuing date); (2) a period of relative decline since 1999; and (3) in most recent years—since 2008—a linear increase in university patenting. We argue that this last period is driven by specific non-US universities (e.g., Tokyo University and Chinese University) patenting increasingly in the USA as the most competitive market for high-tech patents.