UBET and TEUBA: fast methods for forging simulation and preform design

This paper describes the evolution of research led by the author into rapid approximate numerical techniques for analysing forging and extrusion-type processes. It describes how the original work of Prof. Kudo with his unit deforming regions has been adapted to develop the simulation tool known as the upper bound elemental technique. Its use for load, flow, strain and tool pressure prediction together with preform design is described. A more recent formulation, the tetrahedral upper bound analysis is presented which enables a more realistic flow simulation to be achieved. It also embodies the characteristic of fast simulation and can be used in 3D and for preform design.