Food imprinting and visual generalization in embryos and newly hatched cuttlefish, Sepia officinalis

Juvenile cuttlefish spontaneously prefer shrimp to crabs. This preference can be changed by early visual learning during embryonic and postembryonic life and has been related to a form of food imprinting. Nevertheless, it is unknown whether generalization occurs in conjunction with this early learning process. We found that inexperienced hatchling cuttlefish preferred ‘black’ to ‘white crab’ for their first meal, the black ink envelope of cuttlefish eggs did not prevent embryos discriminating between black and white crabs and embryonic or postembryonic visual familiarization to ‘white crabs’ induced a subsequent visual preference for ‘white crabs’ over ‘black crabs’ in the hatchlingʹs first meal. Finally, juvenile cuttlefish previously pre- or postnatally exposed to ‘white crabs’ preferred ‘black crabs’ to shrimp, indicating for the first time that prey generalization occurs as early as the embryonic stages in cuttlefish. Such cognitive abilities could confer important adaptive advantages in processing information about prey likely to be available in the egg-laying environment at hatching and in the course of juvenile dispersal.