Formation and analysis of heterocyclic aromatic amine–DNA adducts in vitro and in vivo

The detection and quantification of heterocyclic aromatic amine (HAA)–DNA adducts, critical biomarkers in interspecies extrapolation of toxicity data for human risk assessment, remains a challenging analytical problem. The two main analytical methods currently in use to screen for HAA–DNA adducts are the 32P-postlabeling assay and mass spectrometry, using either accelerated mass spectrometry (AMS) or liquid chromatography and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (LC–ESI–MS). In this review, the principal methods to synthesize and characterize DNA adducts, and the methods applied to measure HAA–DNA adduct in vitro and vivo are discussed.