Unifying concepts and mechanisms in the specificity of plant–enemy interactions

Host ranges are commonly quantified to classify herbivores and plant pathogens as either generalists or specialists. Here, we summarize patterns and mechanisms in the interactions of plants with these enemies along different axes of specificity. We highlight the many dimensions within which plant enemies can specify and consider the underlying ecological, evolutionary and molecular mechanisms. Host resistance traits and enemy effectors emerge as central players determining host utilization and thus host range. Finally, we review approaches to studying the causes and consequences of variation in the specificity of plant–enemy interactions. Knowledge of the molecular mechanisms that determine host range is required to understand host shifts, and evolutionary transitions among specialist and generalist strategies, and to predict potential host ranges of pathogens and herbivores.