Magma–tectonic interaction and the eruption of silicic batholiths

Due to its unfavorable rheology, magma with crystallinity exceeding about 50 vol.% and effective viscosity > 106 Pa s is generally perceived to stall in the Earthʹs crust rather than to erupt. There is, however, irrefutable evidence for colossal eruption of batholithic magma bodies and here we analyze four examples from Spain, Mexico, USA and the Central Andes. These silicic caldera-forming eruptions generated deposits characterized by i) ignimbrites containing crystal-rich pumice, ii) co-ignimbritic lag breccias and iii) the absence of initial fall-out. The field evidence is inconsistent with most caldera-forming deposits, which are underlain by initial fall-out indicating deposition from a sustained eruption column before the actual collapse sequence. In contrast, the documented examples suggest early deep-level fragmentation at the onset of eruption and repeated column collapse generating eruption volumes on the order of hundreds of cubic kilometers almost exclusively in the form of ignimbrites. These examples challenge our understanding of magma eruptability and eruption initiation processes. In this paper, we present an analysis of eruption promoters from geologic, theoretical and experimental considerations. Assessing relevant dynamics and timescales for failure of crystal-melt mush we propose a framework to explain eruption of batholithic magma bodies that primarily involves an external trigger by near-field seismicity and crustal failure. Strain rate analysis for dynamic and static stressing, chamber roof collapse and rapid decompression indicates that large “solid-like” silicic reservoirs may undergo catastrophic failure leading to deep-level fragmentation of batholithic magma at approximately 2 orders of magnitude lower strain rates than those characteristic for failure of crystal-poor magmas or pure melt. Eruption triggers can thus include either amplified pressure transients in the liquid phase during seismic shaking of a crystal-melt mush, decompression by block subsidence or a combination of both. We find that the window of opportunity for the eruption of large silicic bodies may thus extent to crystallinities beyond 50 vol.% for strain rates on the order of > 10− 3 to 10− 4 s− 1.