Model-guided derivation of lumbar vertebral kinematics in vivo reveals the difference between external marker-defined and internal segmental rotations

This study investigated whether the external marker-defined spine inter-segmental rotation is different from the internal vertebral rotation, and explored how to estimate the latter from limited surface measurement. A kinematic model was first created to elucidate analytically the relation between the external and internal rotations. A novel approach guided by the model was proposed for deriving vertebral centers of rotation (CORs) from measured planar trajectories of skin-surface markers. The approach involved a recursive procedure for establishing local (anatomical) coordinate systems, and an optimization routine that identified the maximum-likelihood circles best fitting the marker trajectories in local coordinate systems. An experiment with 10 subjects (5 males and 5 females) was conducted to test the approach along with the model. Skin-surface markers were strategically placed over individual spinous processes and other body landmarks, and recorded by an opto-electronic system while sagittally symmetric load-lifting movements were being performed. For the majority (89%) of measured motions, the COR locations for lumbar vertebrae (L2–L5) were derived successfully: solutions resulting from the optimization routine met a convergence criterion governed by the model, and were in agreement with existing data from radiographic or cadaveric studies. Empirical results confirmed the differences between the external marker-defined inter-segmental motions and corresponding internal vertebral rotations (1.1–5.8° on average, all statistically significant). The study demonstrated the necessity and viability of quantifying internal vertebral kinematics when utilizing non-invasive marker-based measurement for spine-related clinical diagnosis and biomechanical modeling.