Tactics as units of analysis in personality psychology: An illustration using tactics of hierarchy negotiation

Two important recent trends in personality psychology have been a resurgence of traditional trait research (e.g. five factor model) and the emergence of personal goal-based approaches (e.g. life tasks, personal projects, and personal strivings). We propose that tactics are useful units of analysis that can provide a bridge between these two research movements. To illustrate this approach, we examined the tactics of hierarchy negotiation—the means by which individuals maintain or improve their relative position or status. Studies 1 (N = 84) and 2 (N = 212) identify 26 tactics of hierarchy negotiation that were represented by five major factors: Manipulation, Industriousness, Social Networking, Autonomy, and Aid Accrual. These factors show coherent links with personality characteristics represented by the five-factor model, with interpersonal dispositions, and with self-esteem. Moderate support was found for the predictive power and differential effectiveness of specific tactics of hierarchy negotiation. Industriousness tactics such as Working Hard and Prioritizing Tasks significantly predicted outcome measures such as salary, academic degrees, and promotions. Five sex differences in tactic use emerged—Aid Accrual and Appearance Enhancement (used by women more) and Boasting, Aggressing, and Displaying Athleticism (used by men more)—suggesting that women and men may select different tactics from their strategic arsenal. A longitudinal follow-up (Study 3, N = 130) found that tactics of hierarchy negotiation at time 1 predicted salary, academic degrees, and promotions 4 years later. Discussion focuses on limitations of the current research, on the importance of hierarchy negotiation as a goal, and on the utility of tactics as units of analysis in personality psychology.