Carbon and oxygen 1s ionization energies of the carbonyl group of ketones

The issue we address is whether an animal knows or understands the significance of learning. We constructed an animalʹs own conceptualization via resolving a paradox underlying the process of learning. We found a kind of self-similar pattern in the behavior of goldfish resolving a paradoxical experimental problem. The pattern can be considered as a solution to the paradox in the experiment. An animalʹs own learning should be revised through solving paradoxes. The dualism of mechanistic thinking and vitalism can thus be avoided.