Mechanisms of charging in electron spectroscopy

From the use of physical arguments based on classical electrostatics and elementary solid state physics, the role of the various parameters involved in the charging mechanisms of insulating materials is analysed in detail when these insulating specimens are investigated by surface analytical techniques (mainly XPS and e-AES). The role of the sub-surface composition and structure is outlined and the strong correlations between charging effects and some radiation damage effects are pointed out. Some strategies are also deduced to minimise these effects.