Principles of bone formation driven by biophysical forces in craniofacial surgery

Biophysical forces, particularly mechanical loading and electromagnetic signals, are important regulators of bone formation. Indeed, the regenerative capacity of bony tissue is largely the result of the boneʹs capacity to recognise the functional environment required for the emergence and maintenance of a structurally intact bone. Biophysical methods of stimulation have therefore been introduced and have proved successful in clinical practice with craniofacial bones. Distraction osteogenesis, application of ultrasound, calculated transfer of stresses, and exposure to an electromagnetic field are some examples of biophysically driven approaches to influencing bone formation. The purpose of this review is to provide an insight into cellular and tissue models that are used to study the effects of biophysical stimuli on bone.