Integrated membrane operations in desalination processes

Many areas worldwide, including the southern Mediterranean, are becoming increasingly dependent on desalination. In most areas where brackish water is available, the RO process is usually the most suitable. RO is also the preferred process for smalland medium-size seawater desalination. Israel is one of the Mediterranean countries where RO is solely used, both for brackish and for seawater desalination. Special attention has to be given to the design of plants operating in remote areas. An overview of the plants currently operating in Israel along with the design criteria applied to obtain high reliability and low cost is presented. New trends and perspective for further technological improvements aimed to improve reliability and to lower cost are reviewed and analyzed.