In vivo XRF as a means to evaluate the risk of kidney effects in lead and cadmium exposed smelter workers

The effect on kidney function was studied in 22 smelter workers with concomitant exposure to lead and cadmium. One active and five retired workers showed early signs of kidney dysfunction. They all had a long-term and high lead exposure, while their kidney cadmium concentrations measured in vivo by XRF techniques were low to moderate. Thus, the exposure to lead has been a greater risk, although an interaction between lead and cadmium could not be excluded.