The Ibadi “stages of religion” re-examined: Tracing the history of the Masālik al-Dīn

With few exceptions, scholarly presentations of the Ibād˙ ī “stages of religion” (masālik al-dīn) and their corresponding Imāms (i.e. imām al-z ˙ uhūr, imām al-difāʿ, imām al-shirā’, and imām al-kitmān) propose a simplified overview of the institution that is based on post-Ibād˙ ī renaissance thought on the Imāmate. This paper investigates the pre-renaissance usages of the masālik al-dīn by comparing sixth/twelfth-century Arabian and North African Ibād˙ ī texts on the subject. It demonstrates that Eastern and Western Ibād˙ īs manipulated the concepts central to the later masālik al-dīn ideal to reflect the particular needs of each respective community. While the articulations of the masālik al-dīn differed according to region, they simultaneously utilized a similar vocabulary. This convergence implies an earlier and inherited conceptual system (most likely from the earliest Basran Ibād˙ ī umma) that was adapted in the medieval period to fulfil the unique needs of each community.