Creating false memories with hybrid lists of semantic and phonological associates: Over-additive false memories produced by converging associative networks

The present experiments assessed false memories for critical items (e.g., dog) following the presentation of semantic associates (e.g., hound, puppy), phonological associates (e.g., log, dot), or hybrid lists of semantic and phonological associates (e.g., hound, dot). Experiment 1 indicated that the addition of only three phonological associates to a list of 10 semantic associates doubled the recall of non-presented critical items. Experiment 2 indicated that embedding 18 semantic associates and 18 phonological associates within a single list led to greater false recall than the sum of the false recall effects produced by lists containing 18 semantic associates or lists containing 18 phonological associates. Experiment 3 explored this over-additivity and indicated that lists of 8 semantic associates and 8 phonological associates produced greater false recall and false recognition than the average produced in lists containing 16 semantic or 16 phonological associates. These studies provide converging evidence that lists of semantic and phonological associates produce over-additive false recall and false recognition of non-presented critical items relative to pure semantic or pure phonological lists. An activation-monitoring framework is presented that provides an account of the increased false memories elicited by hybrid lists of semantic and phonological associates. Experiment 3 also showed that the experience of remembering during recognition was driven more by semantic factors, whereas the experience of knowing was driven more by phonological factors.