Avian diversity on golf courses and surrounding landscapes in Italy

Golf courses are increasingly occupying land worldwide. This study investigates whether golf courses can contribute to wildlife conservation and to the enrichment of the local biodiversity. In 23 Italian golf courses, the presence of species of conservation concern was related to land use. In addition, censuses of birds and predators were conducted in three golf courses and the immediate surrounding urban–agricultural areas. Similarity between the 23 golf courses and Italian urban–agricultural territory was complete for the groups of generalist species and minimum for the species of conservation concern belonging to the groups of specialists. In the 23 golf courses, the proportion of forested area was positively related to the richness of species and to the number of species sensitive to forest fragmentation. In two of the three golf courses where censuses were conducted, the proportion of forested area, the number of species of conservation concern and those sensitive to forest fragmentation, were higher than in the surrounding areas. All groups of nest predators were more abundant in the two above golf courses than in the surrounding areas. Golf courses play a minor role in the conservation of specialist species. However, a good amount of forested area in golf courses that are located in urban and agricultural areas can positively affect wildlife. Predation pressure upon nests might be higher in some golf courses than in the relative surrounding areas. This source of concern requires future investigation.