Nanocarriers, nanovaccines, and nanobacteria as nanobiotechnological concerns in modern vaccines

This review briefly describes the concerns of nanobiotechnology in the design and development of novel vaccines using the most known nanocarriers, including nature-made nanocarriers (such as bacterial spores, virus-like particles, exosomes, and bacteriophages), man-made nanocarriers (such as Proteosomes, liposomes, virosomes, SuperFluids, and nanobeads), and their applications in therapeutic and protective immunization, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Here, we focus on the development of nano-based vaccines as ``nanovaccinesʹʹ for inducing immune systems, and the foreseeable promises and problems when compared with existing vaccines. Also, we review a potential nano-hazard for vaccines, so-called nanobacterial contamination.