Ephemeral deposition, seabed mixing and fine-scale strata formation in the York River estuary, Chesapeake Bay

A process-oriented sedimentary facies model is developed for the York River estuary, a sub-estuary of the lower Chesapeake Bay. This facies model was based on 210Pb and grain-size profiles, as well as X-radiographs taken from kasten cores and box cores collected in a series of across-river transects. Throughout most of the energetic microtidal York River, the seabed is characterized by physical mixing to depths of 25–200 cm. A strong cross-estuary gradient in processes is observed with one side, including channel, flank and shoal, dominated by frequent deep erosion and redeposition (physical mixing), while physical mixing is reduced on the other side, resulting in a greater preservation of biological mixing signatures. Within the physically dominated side of the river, the mixed layer is characterized by stair-stepped 210Pb profiles with one or more segments ( 25–200 cm thick) of nearly uniform excess activity. X-radiographs reveal that, although a record of limited biogenic sediment modification is preserved, sedimentary structures within the mixed layer are dominated by centimeter to decimeter scale units of finely to coarsely laminated strata bounded by hiatal surfaces. This demonstrates that mixing results primarily from erosion, resuspension and deposition. Reduced salinity limits the number of benthic species in the York River. Physical disturbance leads to an impoverishment of this community, which is composed primarily of small, opportunistic species with a paucity of larger macrofauna. As a result, mixing in the biologically dominated side of the river is generally on the order of a few centimeters, but may be as deep as 40 cm, and 210Pb geochronology yields low biodiffusion rates (0.43–3.35 cm2 yr 1). X-radiographs reveal the presence of some laminations which suggest that although the mixing is controlled by biological processes the mixing intensity is relatively low. Based on 210Pb geochronologies, residence time estimates for particles within the mixed layer are on the order of centuries. Residence time calculations based on the sediment mass in the physically mixed layer is equivalent to 70 yr of river sediment yield, consistent with century-scale residence times from core data. The frequency and intensity of seabed mixing appears to differ between the lower and upper river. The lower York River is wider and deeper, and is more susceptible to large storms and sea surges, which we suspect drives much of the recorded seabed mixing. Within the upper river, longer-term events (storms) may cause the deepest mixing, but much of this record is destroyed by shorter-term, high-frequency events which produce shallow to mid-depth (<50 cm) mixing, probably driven by spring/neap tides, co-phased tidal constituents, and river flooding.