Lanthanide concentrations in freshwater plants and molluscs, related to those in surface water, pore water and sediment. A case study in The Netherlands

Industrial emissions of lanthanides to aquatic ecosystems increase, but knowledge of the environmental fate of these metals is limited. Here we focus attention upon the distribution of lanthanides in freshwater ecosystems, describing lanthanide partitioning between sediment, water and biota. Since lanthanides are often used as oxidationstate analogues for actinides, their distribution can reflect long-term behaviour of the radioactive transuranics. Concentrations of all 14 naturally occurring lanthanides were measured by ICP-MS in Sago pondweed ŽPotamogeton pectinatus., common duckweed ŽLemna minor., seven different mollusc species Žtissue and shell., two sediment fractions Ž 2 mm and 63 m., surface water and sediment pore water from five locations in The Netherlands. In all samples, the typical ‘saw-tooth’ lanthanide pattern was observed, which implies that lanthanides are transported as a coherent group through aquatic ecosystems. Typical deviations from this pattern were found for Ce and Eu and could be explained by their redox chemistry. The variation in concentrations in abiotic fractions was limited, i.e. within one order of magnitude. However, variations of up to three orders of magnitude were observed in biotic samples, suggesting different affinities among organisms for lanthanides as a group, with significant differences only among molluscs and pondweed samples in relation to sampling location. For P. pectinatus, it was shown that pore water was the most important lanthanide source, and for snails, food Žplants. seems to be the dominant lanthanide source. Lanthanides were not equally distributed between mollusc shell and tissue and the ratio of lanthanide concentrations in shell and tissue were dependent on the sampling location. Shells contained much lower concentra-tions and were relatively enriched in Eu, and to a lesser extent in Ce. Bioconcentration factors for lanthanides in plants and snails relative to surface water were typically between 10 000 and 100 000 l kg 1 dry matter, while sediment water partition coefficients were between 100 000 and 3 000 000 l kg 1 dry matter. There was a low extent of biomagnification in the plant-to-snail system, with a maximum biomagnification factor of 5.5. Many distribution coefficients displayed a slight decrease with atomic number. This can be attributed to the general increase in ligand stability constants with atomic number, keeping the heavier lanthanides preferentially in solution.