Tracking the material, energy, and value flow for end-of-life lithium ion batteries in the US

Global fossil fuel dependence has led to unprecedented greenhouse gas emissions, forcing the world to seek energy alternatives, particularly for personal transportation. Energy storage in batteries is a key component to hybrid and battery electric vehicle deployment. Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) emerged as a competitive technology due to higher power and energy densities compared to lead-acid and nickel-metal hydride chemistries, which once dominated this market. The portable rechargeable battery market, of which lithium-ion has a 75% share, is the fastest growing segment of the rechargeable battery market, with a 20% global growth in 2008. This transition is observed in other application areas as well.