Virtual reality and robotics in medicine

Virtual reality and robotics are teaming to revolutionize the art of medicine, from student training, to diagnosis, anesthesia, surgery and rehabilitation. This paper surveys several key aspects of medical VR including organ modeling, tissue compliance and cutting, and the Teleos Toolkit. This is followed by a review of medical robotics from the kinematics and safety points of view, including special-purpose manipulators and force feedback masters. Finally, we present applications in the areas of tumor palpation, epidural anesthesia, laparoscopic surgery, as well as open and telesurgery