The art and science of engineering hybrid living/non-living mechanical devices

We have demonstrated the construction of hybrid systems comprised of microand nanofabricated parts and biological units. This integration has been accomplished at both nanoscale and microscale levels. The integration of biological parts with nano- and microfabricated structures opens up the possibility of incorporating biological complexity to the resulting systems, ultimately leading to the realization of systems that were not previously feasible. Biological motility structures, ranging from their basic constituents - such as the actinomyosin complex - to myotubules and complete muscle tissue have very high efficiency not currently matched by other commonly used methods of MEMS actuation. Potential applications range widely from medical implants to autonomous reconnaissance systems. Specifics of our fabrication processes and integration protocols are discussed, as well as integration issues that are likely to impact on future work.