The electronic chart-leading or following VNIS technology?

Progress in the field of electronic chart display and information system technology is reviewed. Systems have been designed to help mariners by providing route guidance information, including steering connections in a chart-like environment. A great deal of attention has been placed on the innovative use of color graphics. Due to the international context of modern commercial shipping, much work has been done in the area of standards for data content, display, and exchange. Developers are faced with substantial challenges. In particular, the issue of keeping the chart fully up to date provides both much of the motivation for electronic charting and most of the implementation headaches. Various implementation strategies, from providing updates on cassette tapes to broadcasting complete digital chart files via satellite, have been suggested. The issue of liability for damages caused by errors or misuse has yet to be resolved. Parallels with vehicle navigation and information systems, are described.<>