Simulation of ocean skin temperature modulation by swell waves

The skin temperature of the ocean can be significantly modulated by the presence of swell waves. Experiments show that the magnitude of the modulation can be on the order of the bulk-skin temperature difference and that the phase is determined by the direction of the wind relative to the swell. A new model incorporating small-scale wave breaking, hydrodynamic modulation, and surface renewal theory is developed to simulate the modulation of the skin temperature. Comparisons with observations show that the model can accurately predict the mean skin temperature and both the amplitude and phase of the modulation