Quantitative insights into the closed loop cardiovascular system using an electrical lumped element physiological model

This study extends a comprehensive closed-loop physiological model of the circulatory system based on lumped electrical analogue components. The model associates subject specific factors such as age, gender, body surface area, fitness and smoking habits, with cardiovascular parameters including vascular blood pressures, blood volumes, and cardiac output, providing physiological insight via the interpretation of the model´s parameters. The model parameters were determined using multi-objective constrained optimization in a typical inverse problem setup, and were subsequently associated with the subject specific factors using least squares polynomial relationships with ℓ₁-ℓ₂-norm regularization. We validated the performance of the model using data from 289 subjects, replicating arterial blood pressure accurately (about 4.8% relative deviation from the measured values), whilst also providing physiologically realistic estimates of vascular blood pressures, blood volumes, and cardiac output.