Expressing emotions through robots: A case study using off-the-shelf programming interfaces

This paper explores how effectively users can encode emotions in robot behaviors using existing robot programming interfaces. Specifically, we analyze how programming interfaces for Nao and Pleo robots allow end-users to encode behaviors that express anger, sadness, happiness, and surprise. Via a series of user studies, we found that users were able to express emotions through these robots more effectively via verbal expressions than non-verbal expressions.