Design Principles and Characteristics of Frequency and Time Standards

Today´s precision oscillators and clocks are discussed. They include cesium standards, rubidium standards, hydrogen masers, and quartz crystal oscillators. A brief review of their basic design philosophy and performance characteristics is given. Block diagrams of schematics of the physics packages as well as of the electronic systems are given, and it is pointed out quantitatively (where possible) which parameter changes cause frequency shifts and/or performance deterioration. Particular attention is focused on those parameters which are likely to change under nuclear radiation.