Short-term frequency stability: Characterization, theory, and measurement

An analysis is first presented of the manner in which oscillator short-term instabilities limit performance in a number of applications. This analysis provides guidelines for theoretical formulations, the definition of "short-term stability" and the development of measurement techniques for characterizing short-term instabilities. The factors that affect short-term stability are then discussed, and basic models for theoretical analysis are formulated. The models are used in investigations of the characteristics of outputs of "stable" sources. Measurement techniques are proposed and compared with techniques employed by other investigators.